In English, contractions are commonly used in speech and informal writing. They are almost always either negations with not or combinations of pronouns with auxiliary verbs, and in these cases always include an apostrophe in the written form.
The first category of contractions are those formed by an auxiliary verb or form of be plus the word not, with the o replaced by an apostrophe. For example don't (do not), wouldn't (would not), haven't (have not), shouldn't (should not), can't (can not). Notable exceptions include won't (will not), shan't (shall not), and, in non-standard English, ain't (is not, are not, am not).
Although these were historically contractions, there are good reasons in current English to analyze them as inflectional suffixes rather than contractions.
The second category is generally in the form of a pronoun (or occasionally a noun) plus an auxiliary verb or a form of to be, with the apostrophe replacing as few as one letter, as in it's for it is (or 'tis), or four letters, as in I'd for I would or I should. One of the largest such contractions is I'd've for I would have; at least one seemingly practical larger one, "I'dn't've" for "I would not have", is rarely used. Auxiliary verbs which can be contracted include will, would, shall, have/has, and had. In British English, it is acceptable to form a contraction with the verb have even when it is used as the primary verb (as with the phrase "I've a date today") as it is allowed also, but less common, in American English.
The only commonly used English contraction of two words that does not fall into any of the above categories is "let's", a contraction of "let us" that is used in forming the imperative mood in the first-person plural (e.g. "Let's go [somewhere]"). Use of the uncontracted "let us" typically carries an entirely different meaning (e.g. "Let us go [free]"). "Let us" is rarely seen in the former sense and "let's" is never seen in the latter one.
Although uncommon in written English, people often use complex contractions such as wouldn't've for would not have, or combining auxiliary verbs with nouns, e.g. John'd fix your television if you asked him. Although these can look awkward in print, they are natural and frequently heard colloquialisms. Contractions in English are generally not mandatory as in some other languages. It is almost always acceptable to write out (or say) all of the words of a contraction, though native speakers of English may find a person not using contractions to sound overly formal.
Single-word contractions include: "can't" for "cannot," ma'am for madam and fo'c'sle for forecastle.
Words like gov't for government and int'l for international are shorthand, not to be confused with contractions.
Many people writing English confuse the proscribed possessive form of the pronoun it with its contractions. The possessive form has no apostrophe (its), while the contraction of it is or it has does have an apostrophe (it's). The same is true of the possessive form of you (your) with its contraction you're. See List of frequently misused English words.
Outside the English contractions described above, contractions are virtually the same concept as portmanteaux. Some forms of syncope may also be considered contractions, such as wanna for want to, gonna for going to, and others common in colloquial speech, though these forms, lacking apostrophes, are considered particularly informal.
Contractions are used sparingly in formal written English. The APA style guide indicates that contractions, including Latin abbreviations, are not used in plain text. The equivalent phrase in English must be written out. An exception to this is the Latin abbreviation "et al.", which may be used with citations outside of parentheses.
2. IRREGULAR VERBS.
SIMPLE FORM PAST FORM PAST PARTICIPLE
be was, were been
become became become
begin began begun
bend bent bent
bite bit bitten
blow blew blown
break broke broken
bring brought brought
broadcast broadcast broadcast
build built built
buy bought bought
catch caught caught
choose chose chosen
come came come
cost cost cost
cut cut cut
dig dug dug
do did done
draw drew drawn
drink drank drunk
drive drove driven
become became become
begin began begun
bend bent bent
bite bit bitten
blow blew blown
break broke broken
bring brought brought
broadcast broadcast broadcast
build built built
buy bought bought
catch caught caught
choose chose chosen
come came come
cost cost cost
cut cut cut
dig dug dug
do did done
draw drew drawn
drink drank drunk
drive drove driven
NOTE: This is the first out four lists.
3.COMPUTER´S PARTS
Physical parts of the computer is known as computer hardware. A computer has several main parts. When comparing a computer to a human body, the CPU (Central Processing Unit) is like a brain. It does most of the thinking and tell the rest of the computer how to work. The CPU is in the Motherboard, which is like the skeleton. It provides the basic for where the other parts go, and carries the nerves that connect then to each other and the CPU. The motherboard is connected to a power supply, which provides electricity to the entire computer. The various drives (CD drive, floppy disk, and on many newer computers, USB drive) act like eyes, ears, and fingers, and allow the computer to read different types of storage, in the same way that a human can read different types of books.
The hard drive is like a human´s memory, and keeps tracks of all the data stored on the computer.
Input devices.
Keyboard.- A device to input text and characters by depressing buttons(referred to as keys), similar to a typewriter.
Mouse.- a pointing device that detects two dimensional motions relative to its supporting surface.
Trackball.- a pointing device consisting of an exposed protruding ball housed in a socket that detects rotation about two axes.
Joystick.- a general control device that consists of a handheld stick that pivots around one end to detect angles in two or three dimentions.
Gamepad.- a general handheld game controller that rellies on the digits (especially thumbs) to provide input.
Game controller.- a specific type of controller specialized for certain gaming purposes.
Image scanner.- a device that provides input by analyzing images, printed text, handwriting, or an object.
Webcam.- a low resolution video camera used to provide visual input that can be easily transferred over the internet.
Microphone.- an acoustic sensor that provides input by converting sound into electrical signals.
Output devices.
Image, Video output devices
Printer.- image output device
Monitor.- video output device
Audio output devices
Speakers
Handset
Data output device
CD.- compact disc.
DVD.- digital versatile disc.
4. BASIC ARITHMETICAL OPERATIONS
Arithmetic operations.- The traditional arithmetic operations are addition, subtraction, multiplication and division, although more advanced operations (such as manipulations of percentages, square root, exponentiation, and logarithmic functions) are also sometimes included in this subject. Arithmetic is performed according to an order of operations. Any set of objects upon which all four operations of arithmetic can be performed (except division by zero), and wherein these four operations obey the usual laws, is called a field.
Addition (+)
Addition is the basic operation of arithmetic. In its simplest form, addition combines two numbers, the addends or terms, into a single number, the sum of the numbers.
Adding more than two numbers can be viewed as repeated addition; this procedure is known as summation and includes ways to add infinitely many numbers in an infinite series; repeated addition of the number one is the most basic form of counting.
Addition is commutative and associative so the order in which the terms are added does not matter. The identity element of addition (the additive identity) is 0, that is, adding zero to any number will yield that same number. Also, the inverse element of addition (the additive inverse) is the opposite of any number, that is, adding the opposite of any number to the number itself will yield the additive identity, 0. For example, the opposite of 7 is (-7), so 7 + (-7) = 0. Addition can be given geometrically as follows.
If a and b are the lengths of two sticks, then if we place the sticks one after the other, the length of the stick thus formed will be a+b
Subtraction (−)
Subtraction is essentially the opposite of addition. Subtraction finds the difference between two numbers, the minuend minus the subtrahend. If the minuend is larger than the subtrahend, the difference will be positive; if the minuend is smaller than the subtrahend, the difference will be negative; and if they are equal, the difference will be zero.
Subtraction is neither commutative nor associative. For that reason, it is often helpful to look at subtraction as addition of the minuend and the opposite of the subtrahend, that is a − b = a + (−b). When written as a sum, all the properties of addition hold.
Multiplication (×, ·, or *)
Multiplication is the second basic operation of arithmetic. Multiplication also combines two numbers into a single number, the product. The two original numbers are called the multiplier and the multiplicand, sometimes both simply called factors.
Multiplication is best viewed as a scaling operation. If the real numbers are imagined as lying in a line, multiplication by a number, say x, greater than 1 is the same as stretching everything away from zero uniformly, in such a way that the number 1 itself is stretched to where x was. Similarly, multiplying by a number less than 1 can be imagined as squeezing towards zero. (Again, in such a way that 1 goes to the multiplicand.)
Multiplication is commutative and associative; further it is distributive over addition and subtraction. The multiplicative identity is 1, that is, multiplying any number by 1 will yield that same number. Also, the multiplicative inverse is the reciprocal of any number, that is, multiplying the reciprocal of any number by the number itself will yield the multiplicative identity.
Division (÷ or /)
Division is essentially the opposite of multiplication. Division finds the quotient of two numbers, the dividend divided by the divisor. Any dividend divided by zero is undefined. For positive numbers, if the dividend is larger than the divisor, the quotient will be greater than one, otherwise it will be less than one (a similar rule applies for negative numbers). The quotient multiplied by the divisor always yields the dividend. Division is neither commutative nor associative. As it is helpful to look at subtraction as addition, it is helpful to look at division as multiplication of the dividend times the reciprocal of the divisor, that is a ÷ b = a × 1⁄b. When written as a product, it will obey all the properties of multiplication.
3.COMPUTER´S PARTS
Physical parts of the computer is known as computer hardware. A computer has several main parts. When comparing a computer to a human body, the CPU (Central Processing Unit) is like a brain. It does most of the thinking and tell the rest of the computer how to work. The CPU is in the Motherboard, which is like the skeleton. It provides the basic for where the other parts go, and carries the nerves that connect then to each other and the CPU. The motherboard is connected to a power supply, which provides electricity to the entire computer. The various drives (CD drive, floppy disk, and on many newer computers, USB drive) act like eyes, ears, and fingers, and allow the computer to read different types of storage, in the same way that a human can read different types of books.
The hard drive is like a human´s memory, and keeps tracks of all the data stored on the computer.
Input devices.
Keyboard.- A device to input text and characters by depressing buttons(referred to as keys), similar to a typewriter.
Mouse.- a pointing device that detects two dimensional motions relative to its supporting surface.
Trackball.- a pointing device consisting of an exposed protruding ball housed in a socket that detects rotation about two axes.
Joystick.- a general control device that consists of a handheld stick that pivots around one end to detect angles in two or three dimentions.
Gamepad.- a general handheld game controller that rellies on the digits (especially thumbs) to provide input.
Game controller.- a specific type of controller specialized for certain gaming purposes.
Image scanner.- a device that provides input by analyzing images, printed text, handwriting, or an object.
Webcam.- a low resolution video camera used to provide visual input that can be easily transferred over the internet.
Microphone.- an acoustic sensor that provides input by converting sound into electrical signals.
Output devices.
Image, Video output devices
Printer.- image output device
Monitor.- video output device
Audio output devices
Speakers
Handset
Data output device
CD.- compact disc.
DVD.- digital versatile disc.
4. BASIC ARITHMETICAL OPERATIONS
Arithmetic operations.- The traditional arithmetic operations are addition, subtraction, multiplication and division, although more advanced operations (such as manipulations of percentages, square root, exponentiation, and logarithmic functions) are also sometimes included in this subject. Arithmetic is performed according to an order of operations. Any set of objects upon which all four operations of arithmetic can be performed (except division by zero), and wherein these four operations obey the usual laws, is called a field.
Addition (+)
Addition is the basic operation of arithmetic. In its simplest form, addition combines two numbers, the addends or terms, into a single number, the sum of the numbers.
Adding more than two numbers can be viewed as repeated addition; this procedure is known as summation and includes ways to add infinitely many numbers in an infinite series; repeated addition of the number one is the most basic form of counting.
Addition is commutative and associative so the order in which the terms are added does not matter. The identity element of addition (the additive identity) is 0, that is, adding zero to any number will yield that same number. Also, the inverse element of addition (the additive inverse) is the opposite of any number, that is, adding the opposite of any number to the number itself will yield the additive identity, 0. For example, the opposite of 7 is (-7), so 7 + (-7) = 0. Addition can be given geometrically as follows.
If a and b are the lengths of two sticks, then if we place the sticks one after the other, the length of the stick thus formed will be a+b
Subtraction (−)
Subtraction is essentially the opposite of addition. Subtraction finds the difference between two numbers, the minuend minus the subtrahend. If the minuend is larger than the subtrahend, the difference will be positive; if the minuend is smaller than the subtrahend, the difference will be negative; and if they are equal, the difference will be zero.
Subtraction is neither commutative nor associative. For that reason, it is often helpful to look at subtraction as addition of the minuend and the opposite of the subtrahend, that is a − b = a + (−b). When written as a sum, all the properties of addition hold.
Multiplication (×, ·, or *)
Multiplication is the second basic operation of arithmetic. Multiplication also combines two numbers into a single number, the product. The two original numbers are called the multiplier and the multiplicand, sometimes both simply called factors.
Multiplication is best viewed as a scaling operation. If the real numbers are imagined as lying in a line, multiplication by a number, say x, greater than 1 is the same as stretching everything away from zero uniformly, in such a way that the number 1 itself is stretched to where x was. Similarly, multiplying by a number less than 1 can be imagined as squeezing towards zero. (Again, in such a way that 1 goes to the multiplicand.)
Multiplication is commutative and associative; further it is distributive over addition and subtraction. The multiplicative identity is 1, that is, multiplying any number by 1 will yield that same number. Also, the multiplicative inverse is the reciprocal of any number, that is, multiplying the reciprocal of any number by the number itself will yield the multiplicative identity.
Division (÷ or /)
Division is essentially the opposite of multiplication. Division finds the quotient of two numbers, the dividend divided by the divisor. Any dividend divided by zero is undefined. For positive numbers, if the dividend is larger than the divisor, the quotient will be greater than one, otherwise it will be less than one (a similar rule applies for negative numbers). The quotient multiplied by the divisor always yields the dividend. Division is neither commutative nor associative. As it is helpful to look at subtraction as addition, it is helpful to look at division as multiplication of the dividend times the reciprocal of the divisor, that is a ÷ b = a × 1⁄b. When written as a product, it will obey all the properties of multiplication.
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